Diplomatic handbook

 

The arguments in favour of a diplomat remaining in a post for a lengthy period are:

1. he - or of course she - (and his/her family) need time to settle down domestically before he can

       really concentrate on his work;

(b) he will have an adequate opportunity of getting to know and understand the country in which he

      is serving - its language, history, politics and national temperament;

3. he will have time to make personal contacts and friendships;
4. there will be a saving for the government of expense on travel and costs of transfer.

 

 

The main disadvantage is that he may become emotionally involved in the problems of the country in which he is living and serving, and so be unable to act and advise his own government in a detached and realistic manner. Also he is liable to find himself out of touch with sentiment and events in his home country.

 

The head of the personnel department has one of the most important tasks in the Ministry, deciding whom to send where and for how long. A diplomat is subject to a wide variety of pressures in different posts abroad, and some can cope with particular circumstances better than others: a posting that suits his temperament and personality is in many ways as important as one that suits his ability.

 

RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN MISSIONS

 

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (or its equivalent) is the channel through which all representations should be made to a government by another state, its diplomatic representative or an international organisation. If the enquiry is of an essentially technical or routine nature the Ministry may authorise the appropriate technical department to carry on further correspondence direct with the mission or organisation concerned; but the initial approach and all matters of substance are traditionally addressed to the Ministry.

In practice, with the great increase in the scope and extent of international cooperation since the establishment of the United Nations and regional economic and political groupings, there has been a tendency for home government departments to assume even greater responsibility for international negotiations within their particular field.

 

When a Minister for Foreign Affairs assumes office he writes to all the diplomatic representatives of foreign states and informs them accordingly, and subsequently arranges for each of them to call on him or (in a large capital) for a reception at which he can meet them. When he relinquishes the post he also advises them accordingly and gives them the name of his successor. In addition, the Minister informs the diplomatic representatives of his own country abroad of such moves.

 

The head of a diplomatic mission (unless he is a Chargé d’Affaires en titre) is the representative of one Head of State to another; and although it is no longer practical for him to claim the right of access to the Head of State, or, in many countries, to the head of government, he has by custom and courtesy the right of access to the Minister for Foreign Affairs at any time in order to discuss matters of major concern between the two countries. Dealings of a routine matter, however, are normally carried out between the head of mission or a member of the diplomatic staff of the mission and the appropriate official in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

 

When a Minister for Foreign Affairs wishes to convey a message to another government he has two possible means of communication: through his country’s own diplomatic representative in the foreign country concerned; or through that country’s representative to the Minister’s own government. (Since any government is the instrument of the Head of State, a head of mission may correctly be said to be the representative of one government to another.) Generally speaking a government makes formal approaches through its own representative abroad, but formal protests are often made to the foreign representative who is perhaps more immediately available; effectiveness being the obvious key to the choice of method. Sometimes both are used at the same time. By summoning a head of mission and speaking directly person-to-person, a Minister for Foreign Affairs can doubtless stress the extent of his displeasure when asking for a clarification, particularly if the time chosen for the summons is known to coincide with the diplomat’s breakfast or golf.

 

RELATIONS WITH THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS

 

Matters concerning the Diplomatic Corps in its entirety and the government of the state to which its members are accredited or assigned are dealt with by the senior head of mission (who is known as the Doyen) and the appropriate minister or chief of the Department of Protocol. The term ‘Doyen’ of the Corps Diplomatique might reasonably be transposed to ‘Dean of the Diplomatic Body’; but common usage among English speakers is ‘Dean of the Diplomatic Corps’.

 

In determining the appointment of the Dean or Doyen, the seniority of a head of mission is based on the length of time that he has continuously held his appointment at that post. In certain countries (especially in Latin America) the Apostolic Nuncio is always Dean; and the practice is not uncommon, especially in Latin America, for special provision to be made for Armed Services attachs by the appointment of protocol officers in the Ministry of Defence.

 

 

Chapter 3

THE DIPLOMATIC MISSION

 

 

 

 

 

 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

 

A diplomatic mission consists of a diplomatic representative duly nominated by one state and accepted by another, together with his staff and established in the diplomatic capital of the state. As far as the receiving state is concerned there is only one person who may represent another state, and he is head (or acting head) of that mission who, as such, is entirely responsible for its activities; his staff, strictly speaking, have no direct representative function and merely assist their head.

 

The terminology of diplomacy is often obscure and misleading, and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations usefully defined the staff of a diplomatic mission (with the French expression in brackets) as follows:

 

1. The ‘head of the mission’ (chef de mission) is the person charged by the sending state with the duty of

       acting in that capacity;

2. the ‘members of the mission’ (membres de la mission) are the head of the mission and the members of

       the staff of the mission;

3. the ‘members of the staff of the mission’ (membres du personnel de la mission) are the members of the

       diplomatic staff, of the administrative and technical staff and of the service staff of the mission;

4. the ‘members of the diplomatic staff’ (membres du personnel diplomatique) are the members of the

       staff of the mission having diplomatic rank;

5. a ‘diplomatic agent’ (agent diplomatique) is the head of the mission or a member of the diplomatic staff of the mission;
6. a ‘member of the administrative and technical staff’ (membre du personnel administratif et technique) is a member of the staff of the mission employed in the administrative or technical service of the mission;
7. a ‘member of the service staff’ (membre du personnel de service) is a member of the staff of the

       mission in the domestic service of the mission;

8. a ‘private servant’ (domestique privé) is a person who is in the domestic service of a member of the

       mission and who is not an employee of the sending state.

 

The term ‘diplomatic agent’, which formerly referred only to the head of a mission, now includes the members of the diplomatic staff of the mission; and ‘the members of the diplomatic staff’ are not only members of a diplomatic service, but also attachés, advisers and members of other ministries, provided that they hold diplomatic rank.

The term ‘diplomatic rank’ is not defined, but is used in this context to describe the range of appointments in a diplomatic mission which by tradition entitle the holders to full diplomatic privileges and immunities; and although the term ‘diplomatic agent’ is the correct word to describe the head of mission and members of the diplomatic staff of a mission, the commonly accepted (though less precise) terminology is ‘diplomat’.

 

The functions of a mission are reflected in its structure, and the following pattern remains valid even if, as may happen in some instances, they are all performed by a single person.

 

THE HEAD OF MISSION

 

The head of mission is responsible for all matters connected with his mission. He may, and does, delegate various functions to his staff, but he alone is responsible both to his own government and to the government to which he is accredited for the conduct of the mission.

Irrespective of the size of his staff there is certain basic priorities to which a head of mission normally devotes his personal attention:

 

(a) the formulation of diplomatic policy;

(b) transmitting to the host government the views of his own government on important matters of common

interest and common policy, and acting as the channel of communication between the two in such matters;

(c) reporting to his Ministry on events of political or economic significance, whether they are of direct significance (e.g. the national budget or ministerial changes) or of indirect significance (e.g. changes and trends in social or economic conditions), and commenting on the views of third parties in the country (e.g. articles from the local press, opinions of other diplomats);

(d) being aware of the people of influence and the sources of national power in the state in which he is serving;

(e) conducting himself in his official and personal behaviour in such a way as to bring credit to his country; (f) cultivating as wide and as varied a circle of friends as is possible in order to be able to fulfil (a), (c), (d) and (e) above.

 

The formulation of the diplomatic policy of a mission is a major responsibility of the head of mission, and in this he is assisted by his principal advisers - the heads of the various sections of his mission. The diplomatic policy of a mission can best be defined as the positive attitude adopted towards all matters relating to intercourse between the head of mission’s own state and the one to which he is accredited. It is the product of political judgment, political sense and political wisdom, and is based on an intimate knowledge and understanding of the people and governments of the two states concerned. It may take the form of the head of mission recommending policies to his own government or seeking clarification of their instructions and suggesting a different line of approach; or alternatively suggesting to the government to which he is accredited that a communication that they have instructed him to refer to his government should be reconsidered. It is reflected in the advice given to visiting politicians or businessmen on how to approach people or problems, and is the function that differentiates a diplomatic mission from a post office.

 

 

ADMINISTRATION AND COORDINATION

 

In most diplomatic services a single officer (the Deputy Head of Mission) is responsible for the coordination of the political and economic activities of the mission and the oversight of the administration of the mission. He or she ensures that the various sections of the mission are properly coordinated; that the staff is properly organised and contented; and that communications and the premises of the mission are secure and adequately maintained. The welfare of his staff is a matter of particular concern, for the younger members and those who do not enjoy the privileges of being members of the diplomatic staff may find themselves subject to loneliness and its related ills.

One of the administration’s more important duties is to compile and keep up to date files containing all the items of local information that an incoming head of mission or member of the staff might want to know.

Such files would normally include:

 

(a) The organisation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the host state and any other departments or institutions with which the mission deals; which section deals with which matters; how to obtain an interview, whom to approach (and whom to avoid);

(b) a short account of recent local history;

(c) a 'Post Report' containing matters of domestic interest to members of the staff; medical, dental, travel

     and sporting facilities; climate; housing; domestic help; schools; churches, etc. (this would normally be

     sent to the Personnel Department at home for the briefing of future members of the mission);

(d) a list of personalities which would include distinguished or up-and- coming persons of influence in the

     political, media, military, administrative, industrial, commercial, academic and social sphere.

 

With such information at his disposal an incoming head of mission can quickly grasp the local situation and find his way around. In particular he can know straight away who is significant in relation to his country's interests; social blunders can be avoided, and entertaining (q.v.) greatly facilitated.

 

 

 

COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMICS SECTION

 

Economic and commercial work play an increasingly important part in the functions of a mission.

 

Economic work focuses on analysing the economic and financial policy of the host government, assessing its effects on other domestic and external policies, predicting future trends and reporting (and as necessary negotiating) on economic issues affecting the bilateral relationship. While this involves the collection and analysis of relevant statistics, it also requires a wide range of contacts in the relevant Ministries and in the banking and financial sector. With the aid of modern technology, statistics can quickly be available to a diplomat's own government: but it is the diplomat's Job, following events and picking up information on the spot, to understand the facts behind the figures and thus determine their relevance and significance.

The commercial element is concerned with two separate functions: trade and investment promotion, and trade policy. Trade promotion is self-explanatory and involves a high degree of personal communication skills, dealing with both one's own exporters and potential importers. Diplomats must be prepared to assist visiting businessmen to find their way around, to reply to specific queries and generally provide background information that will enable them to assess the local market and contact the right people. It also involves up-to-date knowledge of markets, how they are structured and who operates them; a close watch on the calling for tenders as well as a keen eye for promotional opportunities.

Trade policy relates to an understanding of the host government's legislation and attitude to commercial relations, and is of increasing significance in view of the trend towards the creation of regional preferential trading areas as governments search for a solution to the problems raised by unemployment and the globalisation of the factors of production. While concentrating on their own country's interests, which is their prime concern, diplomats will also deal with enquiries in the opposite sense from local businessmen, and these they will do their best to satisfy in the interests of good bilateral relations.

Negotiations on the sale of weapons are in many cases conducted through Defence Attachés rather than the Commercial Section. Where important contracts with the host government are concerned - of weapons or other manufactures - the head of mission may play a key role in exerting diplomatic pressure in appropriate quarters.

 

 

SECRETARIAL AND ARCHIVES

 

Members of the secretarial and archives staff who deal with confidential matters are normally of the same nationality as the mission, though non-political sections (e.g. cultural or commercial) may employ local residents provided that they maintain a separate secretarial and archival section. The maintenance of an efficient and well-indexed system of records is a time-consuming occupation, but one of fundamental importance.

 

 

SECURITY

 

The task of the security staff is to ensure that the premises of the mission are not entered unlawfully; that persons entering the building on business are not able to obtain confidential information; and that access to computers, files and documents is restricted to those so entitled. The security staff are preferably of the same nationality as the mission.

TECHNICAL AND COMMUNICATIONS

 

The technical staff are primarily concerned with communications. They are required to encode and decode, encypher and decypher, and operate and, when necessary, repair wireless transmitters and receivers (in those missions that have been granted permission by the host government to use this means of communication), fax machines, encoding and decoding equipment, etc. Their work is of a confidential nature and they are invariably of the same nationality as the mission.

 

 

Local staff

 

Local staff are employed for non-confidential duties as part of the administrative and secretarial staff. They can be of immense value on account of their continuity of service and their knowledge of local customs, politics and personalities. They are commonly employed in the commercial, consular and information sections and as translators.

 

 

ACCOUNTS

 

Accounts are unavoidable, and, if neglected, can cause more trouble than all the rest of the functions of the mission put together; a competent book-keeper (usually local staff) is employed where circumstances permit. A good accounting system has the advantage of enabling local bills to be settled promptly; failure to do so often resulting in ill-will that can undo much of the good relations established by the mission.

 

 

CONSULAR SECTION

 

A consular office in a capital city normally comes directly under the control of the head of the diplomatic mission, and often occupies part of the premises of the mission; it is, however, in some respects a separate entity governed by its own regulations. Its functions and organisation are dealt with in a subsequent chapter.

 

 

PRESS, MEDIA AND INFORMATION SECTION

 

The member of the staff in charge of the Press, Media and Information section has to know what makes news in a particular country and who, locally, makes it, so that he may provide information concerning his country to the maximum effect. Apart from maintaining good relations with the producers of instant publicity - the press, radio and television - a press officer often finds it advantageous to circulate a news-sheet to persons who are known to be interested in and sympathetic to his country. He will usually need the services of a translator (local staff), for an article will only be acceptable if it is written in the language and idiom of the country in which it has to be used. Ministries will allocate priorities as between Press Relations, Media Presentation and Information Services according to circumstances.

 

SERVICE AND SPECIALIST ATTACHÉS 

 

Until quite recently there was a clear distinction between a career diplomat, who concerned himself with political relations, and an attaché, whose interests were limited to a particular field. The former was a member of the diplomatic service and in practice a link between his own Ministry of Foreign Affairs and that of the state to which he was accredited or assigned; the latter was a member of a different government department, and while coming under the auspices and control of the head of mission was primarily serving the interests of his own department. With the growing number of specialist personnel now needed in large diplomatic missions, however, the distinction between the two categories has lessened, and specialists in, for example, legal or labour matters may be either attachs or secretaries on the diplomatic staff. Whatever their function, it is essential that their work should be closely coordinated with that of the mission as a whole.

 

 

ARMED SERVICES ATTACHÉS 

 

Armed Services attachés are normally regular members of the Armed Forces who are attached to a diplomatic mission for a limited period of time. One of the major functions of a Military, Naval or Air Force attaché is to report on developments in his particular field of interest to his particular branch of the services either directly or, in important matters, through his head of mission. He can, in certain instances, help with the purchase or sale of war materials, and in most countries will be invited to take part in military exercises.

 

 

CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL ATTACHÉS 

 

Cultural agreements were at one time the last resort of governments which could find nothing else to agree upon. Today the work of the cultural attaché can be of great value in fostering understanding and goodwill between states by arranging exchange visits of professional or occupational groups, or visits of world-class artists, by the award of scholarships, and by facilitating the study of his national language. It is sometimes the practice to appoint as attaché a person eminent in the field of a particular cultural activity; but in such instances it is also the practice to appoint a good administrator as his assistant. In some instances separate cultural and educational attachés are appointed.

 

 

 

OTHER attachÉs 

 

The range of possible attachés is limited only by the interest of the states appointing them and the willingness of the states receiving them. Their titles are indicative of their function, and include: Labour, Agriculture, Fisheries, Scientific, Industrial, Civil Aviation, Public Relations, Recruitment, Tourism, Legal, Immigration, Shipping and Timber. Chaplains are an important member of certain missions, who may be members of the diplomatic staff and enjoy diplomatic status.