The 21,989 employees of the NPS oversee 392 units, of which 58 are designated national parks (APPENDIX B, Ill.1).

     Many parks charge an entrance fee ranging from US$3 to $25 per week. Visitors can buy a federal interagency annual pass, known as the «America the Beautiful – National Parks and Federal Recreational Lands Pass», allowing unlimited entry to federal fee areas: USDA Forest Service, National Park Service, US Fish & Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Reclamation for $80 per year. This pass applies to entry fees only. Other applicable fees, such as camping, and backcountry access, still apply. US citizens who are 62+ years old may purchase a version with the same privileges for $10, and citizens with permanent disabilities may receive a free version [5].

     National Park System has a lot of additional programs, such as National Park Foundation (APPENDIX B, Ill.4) and National Parks Conservation Association (APPENDIX B, Ill.5). These programs help with controlling, organizing and solving problems, which may appear on the territory of the National Park.

     Chartered by Congress, the National Park Foundation (NPF) is the official charity of America’s nearly 400 national parks. Working hand in hand with the National Park Service, the Foundation helps connect all Americans to the parks, and seeks to ensure that the parks are preserved for the generations who will follow. The National Park Foundation distributes vital grants and program support directly to the national parks across America. The mission of the National Park Foundation is to strengthen the connection between the American people and their National Parks by raising private funds, making strategic grants, creating innovative partnerships and increasing public awareness [6, Pp. 57-81].

     The National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA) is the only independent, membership organization devoted exclusively to advocacy on behalf of the National Park System. Its mission is «to protect and enhance America’s National Park System for present and future generations» [7]. Led by Tom Kiernan, the nonpartisan NPCA works on the ground, in and around national parks, conducting research, and working hand-in-hand with National Park Service staff, community leaders, park advocates, and state and federal legislators to ensure that our parks are welcoming and well funded, well managed, and well protected for present and future generations.

     Today, NPCA has grown to 22 regional and field offices around the country. It publishes a quarterly magazine, National Parks, which is distributed primarily to its members [8].

     The National Park Service offers a variety of youth oriented programs. They range from the Web Ranger on-line program to many programs in each National Park Unit. The primary work opportunities for youth are through the Youth Corp networks. The Corps Network, formerly known as the National Association for Service and Corps (NASCC), represents 136 Service and Conservation Corps. Corps members are between the ages of 16-25:

• Youth Conservation Corps (ages 15–25). The Youth Conservation Corps (YCC), bring young people into a park to restore, preserve and protect a natural, cultural, or historical resources. Enrollees are paid for their work.
• Public Land Corps (ages 16–25). The Public Land Corps (PLC) is a job helping to restore, protect, and rehabilitate local national parks. The enrollees learn about environmental issues and the park. A dozen non-profit.
• Programs for Boy Scouts (ages 7–18). The National Park Service works with the Boy Scouts of America. Members can become a Scout Ranger and earn a patch. The Service participates every four years at the BSA Jamboree at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. Many scouts have earned their Eagle projects in a National Park helping preserve the resources, while furthering the scouting experience.
• Programs for Girl Scouts (ages 5–18). Girl Scouts can become a Girl Scout Ranger and earn a patch. The National Park Service works with Girl Scout Troops through their Linking Girls to the Land [5].

     The National Park Services budget is divided into two primary areas, discretionary and mandatory spending. Within each of these areas, there are numerous specific purposes to which Congress directs the services activities. For Fiscal Year 2010, the service has been charged with five initiatives. They include: Stewardship and Education; Professional Excellence; Youth Programs; Climate Impacts; and Budget Restructure and Realignment [9].

     The Operations of the National Parks (ONPS) section of the budget is divided into five operational areas. These areas include:

     Resource Stewardship: these are funds and people directed towards the restoration, preservation, and maintenance of natural and cultural resources.

     Visitor Services: these funds go towards providing for public programs and educational programs for the general public and school groups.

     Park Protection: this includes the staff which responds to visitor emergencies (medical and criminal), and the protection of the park’s natural and cultural resources from damage by those persons visiting the park.

     Facility Maintenance & Operations: this is the cost of maintaining the necessary infrastructure human created infrastructure within each park that supports all the services provided.

     Park Support: this is the staff that provides for the routine logistical needs of the parks [5].

       Last year Americans created very interesting and rather successful project about their National Parks. «The National Parks: America’s Best Idea» (APPENDIX B, Ill.6) is a 2009 documentary film for television, DVD and companion book by producer Ken Burns and writer Dayton Duncan which features the United States National Park System and traces the system’s history.

     Peter Coyote is the narrator of all episodes, with first-person voices supplied by Adam Arkin, Philip Bosco, Kevin Conway, Andy Garcia, Tom Hanks, John Lithgow, Josh Lucas, Carolyn McCormick, Campbell Scott, and George Takei, Eli Wallach, and Sam Waterston.

     The episodes of the America’s Best Idea include:

1. «The Scripture of Nature» (1851 - 1890) that shows the beauty of Yosemite Valley and the geyser wonderland of Yellowstone. Additionally, it offers a lengthy discussion of how Yosemite and Yellowstone National Parks were created and shows how John Muir became their eloquent defender.
2. «The Last Refuge» (1890 - 1915) that shows how Theodore Roosevelt uses the presidential powers of the Antiquities Act to add National Monuments, including Devils Tower, Mesa Verde, Petrified Forest, Muir Woods, Crater Lake and the Grand Canyon. Hetch Hetchy Valley is lost through damming. Roosevelt’s speech at the dedication of Yellowstone’s Roosevelt Arch states the ultimate purpose of the National Parks: For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People.
3. «The Empire of Grandeur» (1915 - 1919) which covers the creation of the National Park Service and the influence of its early leaders Stephen Mather and Horace M. Albright, and wealthy industrialists who Mather persuaded to help him champion the park system.
4. «Going Home» (1920 - 1933) that focuses on the time when America embraced the automobile, setting off an explosion in the number of park visits. Also, the Rockefellers quietly buy up land in the Teton Mountain Range.
5. «Great Nature» (1933 - 1945) which emphasizes the societal impacts of the park concept, including new environmental and naturalistic perspectives, employment opportunities and application of the park idea to additional geographical locations.
6. «The Morning of Creation» (1946 - 1980) that offers details about the ecological damage caused by 62 million visitors each year and the controversial decision to protect wolves in Alaska which had been hunted to extinction in all other parks.

     The film was previewed in a seven-minute segment at the end of the fourth episode of Burns’ 2007 PBS documentary, The War. The first two-hour segment premiered at the Hopkins Center at Dartmouth College on April 17, 2009. Episodes debuted daily, beginning Sunday September 27 to Friday October 2, with full episodes online the following day.

     Some foreign releases of the series have separated it into 12 hour-long episodes [10]. 
 

     1.3 Working in a National Park Unit 

       By middle 1950s, the primary employee of the Service was the Park Ranger and they did everything that was needed in the parks. By the 21st century, the demands of the service required specialists. Today, there are more than eighteen career paths (jobs) in the service:

• National Park Ranger:
• Interpreter;
• Law Enforcement;
• Park Manager (Superintendent/Deputy);
• United States Park Police;
• First Responders (EMTs, medics, rescue specialist);
• Dispatchers;
• Maintenance Workers (including carpenters, plumbers, masons, laborers, auto mechanics, motor vehicle operators, heavy equipment operators, electricians);
• Park Planners;
• Architects, Engineers, and Landscape architects;
• Resource Managers (including archeologist, biologist, botanist, aquatics, soil scientist, geologist);
• Historians (curators, historians, preservation tech’s, historic architects, archivists);
• Fire Management (managers, weather specialist, firefighters, engine chiefs);
• Public Affairs;
• Concessions Specialist;
• Administrators (human resources, finance, accountants, information technology, budgeting) [11, Pp. 46-59].

     1.4 United Nations Environment Programme

     The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in Nairobi (Kenya). UNEP also has six regional offices and various country offices. UNEP is the designated authority of the United Nations system in environmental issues at the global and regional level. Its mandate is to coordinate the development of environmental policy consensus by keeping the global environment under review and bringing emerging issues to the attention of governments and the international community for action (APPENDIX B, Ill.7)

     Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. It has played a significant role in developing international environmental conventions, promoting environmental science and information and illustrating the way those can work in conjunction with policy, working on the development and implementation of policy with national governments and regional institution and working in conjunction with environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environmentally related development projects.

     UNEP has aided in the development of guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international trade in potentially harmful chemicals, trans boundary air pollution, and contamination of international waterways.

     UNEP’s current Executive Director is Achim Steiner, who succeeded previous director Klaus Töpfer in 2006. Dr Töpfer served two consecutive terms, beginning in February 1998 [12]. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

CHAPTER 2

MAJOR NATIONAL PARKS IN THE USA 
 

     The United States of America is a country of beautiful views and natural sights. There are 58 National Parks on the territory of modern America, but only a few Parks attract tourists from all over the world. There is a top 5 of the most popular National Parks among the tourists: Yellowstone National Park, Grand Canyon National Park, Big Bend National Park, Grand Teton National Park, and Redwood National Park. Each park has its own special characteristics.

     2.1 Yellowstone National Park

     Yellowstone National Park, established by the US Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872, is a national park located primarily in the US state of Wyoming, though it also extends into Montana and Idaho. Yellowstone was the first national park in the world, and is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful Geyser, one of the most popular features in the park. It has many types of ecosystems, but the subalpine forest is dominant (APPENDIX C, Ill.1, Ill.2) [13, Pp. 53-54].

       History. The park is located at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river «Roche Jaune», which is probably a translation of the Minnetaree name «Mi tsi a-da-zi» (Rock Yellow River). Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as «Yellow Stone». Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is not clear.

     The human history of the park begins at least 11,000 years ago when aboriginal Americans first began to hunt and fish in the region. During the construction of the post office in Gardiner (Montana) in the 1950s, an obsidian projectile point of Clovis origin was found that dated from approximately 11,000 years ago.

     In 1871, eleven years after his failed first effort, F.V.Hayden (APPENDIX C, Ill.3, and Ill.4) was finally able to make another attempt to explore the region. With government sponsorship, Hayden returned to Yellowstone region with a second, larger expedition, the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. He compiled a comprehensive report on Yellowstone, which included large-format photographs by William Henry Jackson, as well as paintings by Thomas Moran. His report helped to convince the US Congress to withdraw this region from public auction, on March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed «The Act of Dedication law» that created Yellowstone National Park. Ferdinand V. Hayden, while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the Yellowstone region, was the parks first and most enthusiastic advocate.

     After the park’s official formation, Nathaniel Langford (APPENDIX C, Ill.5) was appointed as the park’s first superintendent in 1872. He served for five years but was denied a salary, funding, and staff. Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park, and without formal policy or regulations, he had few legal methods to enforce such protection. This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers, vandals, and others seeking to raid its resources. He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior and correctly predicted that Yellowstone will become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government. As a result, Langford was forced to step down in 1877 [14, Pp. 13-27]. And now, Yellowstone is one of the most beautiful parks in the USA. Although millions of people visit the park, the land is still unchanged – still a wilderness [13, Pp. 53-54].

     Geography and Geology. Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming. Another 3 percent is within Montana, with the remaining 1 percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (898,317 ha; 3,468.420 sq mi) in area. Rivers and lakes cover 5 percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (35,220 ha; 136.00 sq mi). Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland. Yellowstone National Park has one of the world’s largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely due to the fact that Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a super volcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m) in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m) (APPENDIX C, Ill.6, Ill.7) [14, Pp. 56-63; 15]. 

     The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a «super volcano» because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.2 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff (APPENDIX C, Ill.8, Ill.9, and Ill.10). 

     The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. There are 300 geysers in Yellowstone (APPENDIX C, Ill.11, Ill.12, and Ill.13).

     Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including a 7.5 magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey [15].

     Biology and Ecology. Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. As of 2007, the white bark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about 7 percent of the white bark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana. Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September. The Yellowstone Sand Verbena (APPENDIX C, Ill.14, Ill.15) is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time consuming and expensive [16].

     Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest mega fauna wildlife habitat the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the endangered gray wolf, the threatened lynx, and grizzly bears. Other large mammals include the bison (buffalo) (APPENDIX C, Ill.16), black bear, elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn (APPENDIX C, Ill.17), bighorn sheep and mountain lion. By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), Mackenzie Valley wolves (APPENDIX C, Ill.18), imported from Canada, were reintroduced into the park. 18 species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout – a fish highly sought by anglers. Yellowstone is also home to 6 species of reptiles, such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake, and 4 species of amphibians, including the Boreal Chorus Frog. 311 species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone. Birds considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan [14, Pp. 38-51; 16].