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The UNFPA was established in 1967 and comes under the direction of the Administrator of the UNDP. The Fund considers the wider aspects of population activities including the status of women. It concentrates on monitoring population trends and evaluating national policies, and reports at intervals to the Economic and Social Council on its findings. A major objective was the holding of a population census by member countries between 1975 and 1985.
The origins of the UNHCR are to be found in the aftermath of the First World War and the establishment by the League of Nations of the principle that the international community of states has a duty to provide refugees with protection and find solutions to their problems. Following the Second World War, the UN established the International Refugee Organisation in order to continue the work of the League, and this was superseded in 1951 by the UNHCR, with the task of 'providing international protection ... and ... seeking permanent solutions for the problems of refugees'.
The activities of UNHCR and the obligations of the signatories were specified in the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the subsequent 1967 Protocol (126 states subscribing to the former and 118 to the latter) which clarifies and extends the definition of the term 'refugee' and establishes the social and legal status of refugees. Regional definitions and principles have been adopted to meet special circumstances, in particular the 1969 Organisation of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa and the 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees.
The UN High Commissioner for Refugees is elected by the UN General Assembly on the nomination of the Secretary General. The General Assembly and ECOSOC provide policy directives, and the Executive Committee composed of forty-seven member-government representatives supported by two sub-committees put them into effect.
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
ORGANISATION
UNIDO was established by the General Assembly in 1966 for the purpose of encouraging and implementing United Nations efforts in the field of industrial development, particularly by carrying out research studies on behalf of developing countries. Its governing body, the Industrial Development Board, is elected by the General Assembly and reports to the Assembly through ECOSOC; and its Secretariat is at the UN City in Vienna.
UNITED NATIONS INSTITUTE FOR TRAINING
AND RESEARCH
UNITAR seeks to contribute to the process of modernisation and development through the better use of the training of human resources. It carries out training programmes in diplomatic practice, international organisation and technical and economic cooperation, and has as a major objective the creation of a corps of personnel of the highest calibre, particularly from the developing countries, equipped to serve in assignments within the United Nations or with national services connected with the work of the UN. A Board of Trustees determines policy, and the Executive Director and headquarters are in New York.
UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY FOR
PALESTINE REFUGEES AND THE NEAR EAST
UNRWA provides aid and assistance to Palestine refugees in the Near East, and endeavours to arrange for their permanent settlement; it was originally established as an ad hoc committee by the United Nations General Assembly, and is supported by donations from governments and private sources. Its main concern is the provision of food, clothing and shelter, education and health services. It is controlled by an Advisory Committee, and the Commissioner-General has his headquarters in Vienna.
Chapter 8
INTERNATIONAL
ORGANISATIONS AND
AGREEMENTS OUTSIDE
THE UNITED NATIONS
The League of Arab States is an association of states having a common heritage and mutual interests, based on the Cairo Pact of the League of Arab States in 1945, supplemented by the 1959 Treaty of Mutual Defence and Cooperation. The objects of the League are to strengthen the bonds between member countries; to coordinate their political activities so as to ensure their independence and sovereignty, and to promote the interests of Arab countries. It also seeks close collaboration in the fields of culture, health, social welfare, transport and communications, passports, visas and nationality laws, and economic and financial matters including trade, customs, currency, agriculture and industry; and provides that in the event of aggression or a threat of aggression a member state may request a meeting of the Council of the League. The members are Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The League of Arab States has observer status in the General Assembly and in its subsidiary organisations; and the Secretariat and Headquarters of the League are in Cairo.
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was formed in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence among Asia-Pacific economies. Its objectives are to sustain economic growth of the APEC region and of the world; to enhance positive gains by encouraging the flow of goods, services, capital and technology; to develop and strengthen the open multilateral trading system and reduce those barriers to trade in goods and services that are inconsistent with the World Trade Organisation principles. The three pillars of APEC are trade and investment liberalisation; trade and investment facilitation; and economic and technical cooperation, the latter aiming to assist the developing member countries in enhancing their economic progress so that they will be in a position to take part in the trade and investment liberalisation process. A specific objective is to achieve free trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific area by the year 2020, with industrialised countries achieving this goal by 2010. Special emphasis is also placed on increasing the role of the private sector in the development of the area.
Ministerial Meetings are held every year, and subjects discussed have included education; energy; the environment and sustainable development; finance; human resources development; science and technology cooperation; small and medium enterprises; the telecommunication and information industry; trade; and transportation. In addition, there are ten Working Groups, namely fisheries; human resources development: industrial science and technology; marine resource conservation; regional energy cooperation; telecommunications; tourism; trade and investment data; trade promotion; and transportation.
The APEC members are Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Thailand and the United States of America. The ASEAN Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) and the South Pacific Forum (SPF) have observer status. The Secretariat of APEC, headed by the Executive Director, is in Singapore.
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH-EAST
ASIAN NATIONS
ASEAN was established in Bangkok on 8 August 1967, founding members being Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Singapore. Brunei Darussalam joined in 1984, Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Myanmar in 1997. Cambodia’s application for membership in 1997 was deferred. The aims of the Association are primarily to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to promote regional peace and stability.
Areas of cooperation include political, security, economic, functional and external relations. ASEAN’s major political initiatives include the Declaration on the Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) of 1971, the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in South-East Asia (TAC) in 1976 and the Treaty on the South-East Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ) of 1995. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), established in 1994, aims to promote political and security dialogues in the Asia-Pacific region.
Economic cooperation includes trade and investment; industry; food, agriculture and forestry; financial and banking services; transport and communications, tourism, minerals and energy; and private sector participation. In 1992, ASEAN entered into a Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) scheme for the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) which is on course to reduce tariff rates to 0-5 percent by the year 2000 and to eliminate tariffs completely by 2003. All manufactured products, including capital goods, and processed and unprocessed agricultural products are included in the CEPT scheme. ASEAN is also undertaking trade facilitation measures such as elimination of non-tariff barriers, harmonisation of tariff nomenclature, customs procedures and valuation. Other functional areas involve cooperation in science and technology; environment; culture and information; social developments and drugs and narcotics control.
A major initiative is the establishment in 1995 of the ASEAN Mekong Basin Development Corporation to assist in the development of countries in the basin, particularly Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. Sectors of cooperation include infrastructure, trade and investment-generating activities, agriculture, forestry and mineral resources, industries, tourism, human resource development, and science and technology; Expert Working Groups have been set up on Finance to consider funding modalities, technical assistance, pre-feasibility and feasibility studies, equity and debts; and on the Rail Link (under consideration) between Singapore and Kunming in China.
ASEAN’s external relations are focused on two organisations:
The ASEAN Regional Forum
The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1992 in order to promote external dialogue on enhancing security in the region. This is in addition to the ongoing dialogue on Asia-Pacific security. Members of the ARF are the ASEAN members, the ASEAN observer Papua New Guinea, and ASEAN Dialogue Partners namely, Australia, Canada, China, India, the EU, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Russia and the United States of America. The Forum endorsed the purposes and principles of the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in South-East Asia as a code of conduct governing relations among states in the region; agreed to concentrate on Confidence Building Measures in order to develop a more predictable and constructive pattern of relations for the Asia Pacific region, to concentrate on Preventive Diplomacy and to establish the mechanism for conflict resolution.
Asia-Europe Meeting
The Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) was conceived as ASEAN’s initiative with a view to redressing the 'missing link' between Asia and Europe, and its first Asia-Europe Meeting was held in Bangkok on 1-2 March 1996 attended by the Heads of State and Government: it was the first high-level meeting between leaders of Asia and Europe. The Meeting recognised that the ASEM process needed to be open and evolutionary, and that inter-sessional activities were necessary although they need not be institutionalised. To date, the ASEM has identified seventeen projects/programmes relating, inter alia, to the economies, the environment, science and technology, political, cultural and development cooperation undertaken by both regions. These projects are at various levels of implementation, and include the Trans-Asian Rail Link between Singapore and Kunming in China and the Asia-Europe University Exchange Program. The members of ASEM are China, Japan, Republic of Korea, the fifteen member states of the European Union and the President of the European Commission, and the member states of ASEAN.
Organisational structure of ASEAN
The Meeting of Heads of Government is the highest decision-making body of ASEAN, and there are thirteen sectoral Ministerial Meetings including the annual meetings of the Foreign Ministers and of the Economic Ministers. The ASEAN Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, is in Jakarta.
The BIS was founded as a result of an intergovernmental Convention dated 20 January 1930. It is a Central Banking Institution which makes its services available to central banks and intergovernmental institutions. It is also a centre for economic and monetary research and consultations, and acts as technical agent for the execution of certain specific agreements with, for example, the OECD and the ECSC. It cooperates with other institutions such as the IMF, and since 1982 has been particularly instrumental in resolving liquidity problems of debtor countries by providing short-term bridging loans. Its membership of thirty-two comprises nearly all European central banks, as well as the monetary authorities of a number of non-European countries including Japan and the USA; and although some of the shares are held by the public, all rights of voting and representation in respect of the shares are vested in the central bank of each country in which the shares were issued. Under its statutes the BIS may only undertake operations that are in conformity with the monetary policy of the central banks concerned, and its operations are essentially short term. The headquarters of the Bank are in Basel.
BSEC is a regional organisation of eleven states established in accordance with the Summit Declaration on Black Sea Economic Cooperation signed in Istanbul on 25 June 1992. The objective is to promote peace, stability and prosperity in the region, on the basis of shared values such as multi-party democracy, social justice, human rights, the rule of law, fundamental freedoms and economic prosperity. Members of BSEC are Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine. Observer status is accorded to Austria, Egypt, Israel, Italy, Poland, Slovakia and Tunisia.
The institutions of BSEC are the Annual Meetings of Heads of State or Government, a Parliamentary Assembly, the Black Sea Trade and Development Bank in Thessaloniki and the Coordination Centre for the Exchange of Statistical Data in Ankara. The BSEC Council is the organ of the business communities of the member states for the purpose of developing initiatives and cooperation in the private sector, and the Secretariat is in Istanbul.
The ACS was established in 1995 primarily as a coordinating body to enhance the status and bargaining power of the region in political and economic negotiations. It provides a forum for consultation, cooperation and concerted action in areas of mutual cultural, economic and technical concern, especially transport and tourism. Membership consists of the islands of the Caribbean, together with the mainland states of Colombia, Mexico, Surinam and Venezuela; also six Observer members. The Secretariat is in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.
The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) is the major regional economic organisation in the Caribbean. Its main function is the creation of a Caribbean Common Market but its activities extend to a wider sphere and include the harmonisation of economic and related policies. Members are Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, and the British Virgin Islands.
The Heads of Government Conference are responsible for the policy of the Community, and the Common Market Council of Ministers is responsible for the Common Market. The Secretariat is in Georgetown, Guyana.
The Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) consists of Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis, St Lucia and St Vincent and the Grenadines, all of which have in the past shared certain common services such as a common currency and judiciary. These common services are being extended to include, inter alia, harmonisation of foreign policies and joint overseas diplomatic representation. A major objective is to increase bargaining power in inter-governmental negotiations.
The members of MCCA are Costa Rica, EI Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. In terms of the 1960 treaty of Managua and the Guatemala Declaration on Monetary Integration the parties aim to eliminate tariffs on nearly all intra-regional trade, and eventually to create a customs union. They envisage the harmonisation of policies relating to taxation, customs classification, monopolies, dumping and unfair trade practices; the acceptance of the principles of coordinated industrial development and of freedom of transit, and the establishment of a Central American Bank of Economic Integration. The institutions of MCCA are the Central American Economic Council composed of Ministers of each of the parties, and an Executive Council on which each party is represented. The Secretary-General and the Secretariat are in Guatemala City.
The CEI was founded in 1989 by Austria, Hungary, Italy and Yugoslavia with the aim of increasing economic and political cooperation, developing cross-border infrastructure and providing a forum for the discussion of regional problems. By 1997, its membership had grown to sixteen, and new members are not contemplated. Its major purpose now is to promote European integration, and to facilitate the process for those members who are not yet members of the European Union, within a framework of parliamentary democracy, and the maintenance of human rights. Members of CEI are Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia (FYR), Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine.
The organisational structure of the CEI is based on a series of regular forums: the annual Heads of Government Meeting, the annual meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Committee of National Coordinators which meets on a regular basis, the Special Meetings of Sectoral Ministers, and the Parliamentary Conference attended by delegates representing national Parliaments. In addition, cooperation and dialogue relationships exist with such organisations as the European Union, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Council of Europe, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Council of Baltic Sea States, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Community of Alps Adriatic and the Community of the Danubian Region.
There is no fixed Secretariat, but the CEI Trieste Centre was established in Italy in 1996.
COMESA was established in 1993 as a successor organisation to the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA). As with the Southern African Development Community (q.v.) and the Southern African Customs Union between South Africa, Namibia, Swaziland, Lesotho and Botswana (SACU) it seeks to create a momentum towards economic integration, and in addition provides a clearinghouse with its own unit of account for financial transactions between member states, namely Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Secretariat of COMESA is in Lusaka.
The Commonwealth is an association of states all but two of which at one time formed part of the British Empire or were Protected States in treaty relations with the Crown. Intra-Commonwealth cooperation and consultation are maintained by institutional and personal contact in cultural and educational matters; and meetings of heads of governments or their representatives are held normally every two years for the exchange of views on matters of common concern. Aid and development are featured in the initiation of the Colombo Plan and in the Commonwealth Fellowships; and trade, in preferential tariff and quota arrangements, now mainly incorporated in the Lomé Convention. Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II is Head of the Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Secretariat and its Secretary-General are situated in London. The following states are full members of the Commonwealth: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji, The Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, New Zealand, Nigeria (suspended), Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, St Kitts-Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Vanuatu, Western Samoa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Nauru and Tuvalu are Special Members. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association provides a focus for the mutual interests of the legislatures of the Commonwealth; those member states which fail to maintain the concept or practice of parliamentary government being suspended from membership of the Association.
THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT
STATES
The Commonwealth of Independent States - like the British Commonwealth and the French Community - seeks to develop an institutional structure within which its former component parts can continue to cooperate in those aspects of government that they consider to be to their advantage; and like other similar institutions, it is in a state of constant evolution, as the original economic interdependence decreases and the sense of national identity among those states that have seceded from the Soviet Union becomes stronger.
The CIS is based on the 1991 Minsk Agreement between Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. These former Republics of the Soviet Union, having concluded that the USSR 'had ceased to exist as a subject of international law and a geographical reality', declared that 'cooperation between the members of the Commonwealth would be carried out in accordance with the principle of equality through coordinating institutions'. Areas of cooperation were defined as foreign policy; forming and developing a united economic area and a common European and Eurasian market in the area of customs policy, transport and communications, the environment, migration and organised crime.
Other former Republics - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan - acceded to the Declaration, and also signed the Agreement on Strategic Forces whereby they 'recognised the need for joint command of strategic forces and for maintaining unified control of nuclear weapons', and the Agreement on Armed Forces and Border Troops which formed the basis for subsequent bilateral peace-keeping arrangements. Proposals for the creation of a unified CIS military command were abandoned in favour of a military coordinating committee, and Russia has offered to assist in the defence of the borders of the Central Asian and Trans-Caucasian Republics if so requested. Other fields of cooperation include the creation of a CIS Bank, a Petroleum and Gas Council, moves towards free trade and an economic union, and a structure to regulate inter-state financial transactions together with an Economic Court.