Criminology

Criminology

(1)  Criminology is я social science dealing with the nature, uxlent, and causes of crime; the characteristics of criminals and their organizations; the problems of apprehending and convicting offenders; the operation of prisons and other correctional institutions; the rehabilitation of convicts both in and out of prison; and the prevention of crime.

(2)  The science of criminology has two basic objectives: to determine the causes, whether personal or social, of criminal behaviour and to evolve valid principles for the social control of crime. In pursuing these objectives, criminology draws on the findings of biology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, and related fields,

(3) Criminology originated in the late 18th century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanise penal institutions. During the 19th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to tho understanding nf crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasised case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the 'social defence' movement, stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and therights of society.

(4) Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. The typological method involves classifying offences, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. Sociological research, which may involve many different techniques, is used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas.

(5)  Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment Criminological research can be used by legislators and in the reform of laws and of penal institutions-

Punishment

Punishment describes the imposition by some authority of a deprivation — usually painful — on a person who has violated a law, a rule, or other norm. When the violation is of the criminal law of society there is a formal process of accusation and proof followed by imposition of a sentence by a designated official, usually a judge, informally, any organised group — most typically the family, may punish perceived wrongdoers,

Because punishment is both painful and guilt producing, its application qalls for a justification. In Western culture, four basic justifications have been given: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation, Most penal historians note a gradual trend over the last centuries toward more lenient sentences in Western countries. Capital and corporal punishment widespread in the early 19th century, are seldom invoked by contemporary society. Indeed, in the United States corporal punishment as such appears Lu be contrary to the 8lb Amendment's restrictions on cruel and unusual punishment Yet the rate of imprisonment in the United States appears to be growing. Furthermore, since the mid-1970s, popular and professional sentiment has taken a distinctly punitive turn and now tends to see retribution and incapacitation — rather than rehabilitation — as the goals of criminal punishment

Criminal sentences ordinarily embrace four basic modes of punishment. In descending order of severity these are: incarceration, community supervision, fine, and restitution. The death penalty is now possible only for certain types of atrocious murders and treason.

Punishment is an ancient practice whose presence in modern cultures may appear to be out of place because it purposefully inflicts pain. In the minds of most people, however, it continues to find justification.