Comparative analysis of itony in english and russian

Uzbek State World Languages University

Master’s Degree Department

English Philology Faculty 
 
 
 

Presentation

Comparative analysis of stylistic device irony

in English and Russian languages 
 
 
 

instructor: Jusupov N. 
 
 

Tashkent 2011

1. Definition and meaning of English irony from the stylistic point of view

 

Irony is an instinctively recognized Stylistic Device (SD), the nature of which is not fully studied. This device is also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual ones, but the two meaning stand in opposition to each other. That is, a word with a positive meaning is used to denote something negative and vice versa.

For example: must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

According to Efimov’s book from stylistic irony is classified as lexico-semantic Stylistic Devices and is the figure of substitution and in additional the figures of quality as a kind of figure of substitution.

This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally hunks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings: ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means displeased, etc. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of context: too clever by half, a young hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to orate, to oratorize. In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to impropriate intonation and gestures.

Irony is generally used to convey:

-                     Negative meaning or emotion: Favoured country! – they let the paupers go to sleep!

-                     Irritation and dissatisfaction: What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this.

-                     Regret and disappointment: We were very lucky to find our pockets without penny in a foreign country.

-                     Displeasure: Thank you very much for trumping my ace!

Usually the word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation by means of a logical stress. Irony should not be confused with humour, though they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter. But a word used ironically may have some shades of meaning that can be sad and even bitter. For example, observe the ironical usage of the verb «like»:

I like the taxes, when they 're not too many;

I like a sea coal fire, when not too dear;

I like the weather, when it is not rainy;

That is I like two months of every year. (J.G. Byron)

According to Kuznetsova’s book from Stylistics some SDs are based upon the ways of joining lexical units in succession: words within a phrase, words and phrases within a sentence. The essence of such ways of joining words is the semantic correlation of words and phrases. There are three main types of this correlated junction of words:

1) correlation between semantically synonymous lexical units; they produce figures of identity;

2) correlation between semantically opposite lexical units; they produce figures of opposition;

3) correlation between semantically different lexical units; they produce figures of inequality.

Figures of opposition are characterised by the combination in context of two or more words or word-groups with opposite meanings. These meanings are either objectively opposition which interpreted as such by the speaker. Figures of opposition are: Irony, Antithesis and Oxymoron.

So, irony – speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. 

2. Classification of Irony  

There are various types of irony. They have in common the adoption of a distance from the subject for satirical or critical effect. The most accepted is the following characteristic:

1. Verbal irony is when an author says one thing and means something else. An example of this is when someone says «Oh, that's beautiful», when what they mean (probably conveyed by their tone) is they find «that» quite ugly.

2. Dramatic irony is when an audience perceives something that a character in the literature does not know. For example, when a character says to another «I'll see you tomorrow!», when the audience (but not the character) knows that the character will die before morning.

3. Situational irony is a discrepancy between the expected result and actual results. Being «shot with one's own gun,» or «hoisted by one's own petard» are popular formulations of the basic idea of situational irony. Situational irony includes cosmic irony and historical irony.

Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a man exclaims, «I’m not upset!»  but reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim he's not upset, it would not be verbal irony by virtue of its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony – speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. There are, however, examples of verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist and the utterance is not ironic.

Verbal Irony Examples in Literature 

• One of the classic verbal irony examples in literature is from Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare, from the famous Friends, Romans, Countrymen... speech by Mark Anthony, where he says, "Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honorable man."
• Another good example from a Shakespearean play is from Macbeth. In Act 2, Lennox, in a conversation with Macbeth, talks about the events of the previous night which could not be categorized as anything but weird, to which Macbeth replies with a seemingly affirmative observation, "Twas a rough night." While Lennox is not able to grasp the full meaning of the statement, as a reader, you know that it is loaded with irony and is in reference to the murder of Duncan.
• George Orwell's allegorical commentary on communism, Animal Farm has many good irony examples. One of the best ones is the change of the commandments that the animals follow, from "No animal may drink alcohol," to No animal may drink alcohol in excess."
• One of the best verbal irony examples in songs in popular media is Stay Awake from the Julie Andrews starrer Mary Poppins, where she sings a song about staying awake to put her wards to sleep. This is also one of the most common irony examples for kids that teachers use to explain the concept.
• One of the most repeated examples of irony, especially sarcasm, is a conversation between Winston Churchill and a lady guest at a party he was attending, where the woman accused Mr. Churchill of being drunk, to which he retorted, "My dear, you are ugly ... but tomorrow I shall be sober."

 

Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean. For instance, the following explicit similes begin with the deceptive formation of a statement that means A but that eventually conveys the meaning not A: as soft as concrete, as clear as mud, as pleasant as a root canal.

Dramatic irony has three stages – installation, exploitation, and resolution (often also called preparation, suspension, and resolution) – producing dramatic conflict in what one character relies or appears to rely upon, the contrary of which is known by observers (especially the audience; sometimes to other characters within the drama) to be true. In summary, it means that the reader/watcher/listener knows something that one or more of the characters in the piece is not aware of. In ‘Romeo and Juliet’, the other characters in the cast think Juliet is dead, but the audience knows she only took a sleeping potion. Tragic irony is a special category of dramatic irony. In tragic irony, the words and actions of the characters contradict the real situation, which the spectators fully realize.

Dramatic Irony Examples in Literature 
When there is a disparity in what is said by the speaker and what is understood by the listener or the reader, then the author is said to have employed dramatic irony, which is generally used to create suspense in a situation. The dialog of a character may give away the actuality of a situation, in a manner that the situation is fully understood by the reader or the audience. Given below are some good dramatic irony examples

• Most Shakespearean plays are good examples of irony. In Romeo and Juliet while the audience is aware that Juliet has taken a sleeping potion and is feigning her death, Romeo and everyone else believes that she is dead having killed herself.
• Sophocles, in the classic, Oedipus the King, makes the reader aware that the Oedipus himself is the murderer he is searching for.
• Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen starts with the sentence, "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife," which starts becoming increasingly ironic with the knowledge that the women in the novel are the ones who are always in search for a man, especially a rich prospective suitor.
• Othello, the eponymous protagonist of the play, is unaware that Desdemona has always been faithful to him and that he is a victim of Iago's scheming.
• The Truman Show starring Jim Carrey, is a good example of irony explained where the audience is aware that Truman is a part of a T.V. show but he discovers it in the course of the film.

 

Situational irony is a relatively modern use of the term, and describes a discrepancy between the expected result and actual results when enlivened by perverse appropriateness.

For example: When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President; however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle made to protect the President from gunfire was partially responsible for his being shot.

Situational Irony Examples in Literature 
Situational irony is said to occur in a situation when the result that you expected is completely in contrast to what the end result is. This type of irony is also called the irony of events. Lars Ellestrom defines situational irony as "a situation where the outcome is incongruous with what was expected, but it is also more generally understood as a situation that includes contradictions or sharp contrasts." Given below are some of the best situational irony examples in literature.

• One of the most quoted irony examples in poetry is from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. 
  "Water, water, every where, 
  And all the boards did shrink ;  
  Water, water, every where,  
  Nor any drop to drink."
• O. Henry's The Gift of Magi is a good example of irony, where the couple gives away the most precious thing they possess to buy gifts that would enhance the others' most precious possession. An ironic situation that results in both of them with gifts that they are unable to use anymore.
• The Accidental Tourist by Anne Tyler is perfect example of situation irony in literature."Seated in a stenographer's chair, tapping away at a typewriter that had served him through four years of college, he wrote a series of guidebooks for people forced to travel on business."
• One of the best irony examples in literature is in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Dorothy only realizes at the end of the novel that she possesses the ability to go back home, the Scarecrow who wants a brain realizes that he is extremely intelligent, the Tin Woodsman realizes he already has a heart and the Lion realizes that he is bold and courageous.

 

The expression «irony of fate»  (cosmic irony) stems from the notion that the gods (or the Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals with deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with situational irony, it arises from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human intentions and actual results. The resulting situation is poignantly contrary to what was expected or intended. More recently in English, the mere «coincidental or unexpected» has been called ironic, and this usage appears to be gaining ground. It is still considered a minor usage. Some examples of situations poignantly contrary to expectation.

In art: In O. Henry's story The Gift of the Magi, a young couple are too poor to buy each other Christmas gifts. The wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his heirloom pocket watch. She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of combs for her long, beautiful, prized hair.

When history is seen through modern eyes, there often appear sharp contrasts between the way historical figures see their world's future and what actually transpires. In a more tragic example of historical irony, what people now refer to as «The First World War» was originally called «The War to End All Wars» or «The Great War.» Historical irony is therefore a subset of cosmic irony.

Cosmic irony is disparity between human desires and the harsh realities of the outside world. By some definitions, situational irony and cosmic irony are not irony at all.

A speaker might take up an opponent's argument and then exaggerate it to reveal its weaknesses. This is Socratic irony. Irony is often classed as a form of humour, along with sarcasm and satire. These do not necessarily evoke laughter, but rather a wry shrug or assent to the idea that the received world picture has been disturbed. Irony must not be confused with sarcasm, which is direct: sarcasm means precisely what it says, but in a sharp, caustic manner. 

Irony in Russian language 

Ирония (греч. eironeia - "притворство") - употребление слова (словосочетания, предложения) в противоположном смысле, с целью насмешки. Например, в басне И.А. Крылова "Стрекоза и Муравей" ироничны заключительные слова Муравья, обращенные к "попрыгунье Стрекозе": 
 
"Ты все пела? это дело: 
 
Так поди же, попляши!" 
 
Здесь совет "поплясать" значит примерно то же, что "голодать", "умирать": ведь "с зимой холодной // Нужда, голод настает; // Стрекоза уж не поет", она "злой тоской удручена". Имеют противоположный смысл и крылатые фразы хитрой крыловской Лисицы: "Что, ежели, сестрица, // При красоте такой и петь ты мастерица, - // Ведь ты б у нас была царь-птица !" ("Ворона и Лисица"); "Отколе, умная, бредешь ты, голова?" ("Лисица и Осел"). "Ирония есть когда чрез то, что сказываем, противное разумеем", - писал М. В. Ломоносов 1 . Более подробное определение дано в "Словаре древней и новой поэзии" Н. Ф. Остолопова: ирония - "троп риторический. Состоит в том, когда с видом насмешливым или шуточным говорят противное тому, что думают. Ирония, когда под видом похвалы бранят и под видом удивления презирают, встречается очень часто даже в обыкновенных разговорах"

2 . Как  стилистический прием ирония - разновидность  антифразиса, т.е. "употребления... слова или выражения в противоположном смысле"

3 .Но  не всякий антифразис - ирония; ведь можно вкладывать в слова противоположный смысл для выражения самых разных чувств. Так, хула нередко оказывается скрытой хвалой. В "Герое нашего времени" М. Ю. Лермонтова, в повести "Бэла", Максим Максимыч в беседе с Рассказчиком называет местных жителей "разбойниками", "бестиями", "головорезами". Однако в этих словах штабс-капитана, служащего на Кавказе, чтобы усмирять горцев, чувствуется и невольное восхищение ловкостью, смелостью таких, как Казбич (его приятель, "кунак"): "Вот, батюшка, надоели нам эти головорезы; нынче, слава богу, смирнее, а бывало, на сто шагов отойдешь за вал, уж где-нибудь косматый дьявол сидит и караулит: чуть зазевался, того и гляди - либо аркан на шее, либо пуля в затылке. А молодцы!"; "у Казбича "рожа... была самая разбойничья: маленький, сухой, широкоплечий... А уж ловок-то, ловок-то был, как бес". В высказываниях лермонтовского персонажа есть антифразис, но нет иронии. 
 
Ирония - антифразис, выражающий негативное отношение к предмету. Но как понять, что смысл слов - противоположный? Ведь в баснях Крылова ни Ворона, ни Осел подвоха не почувствовали, ведь "в сердце льстец всегда отыщет уголок". В отличие от устной речи, где насмешку передает уже одна интонация ("Прекрасное сочинение!" - эти слова можно произнести и восторженно, и язвительно), в книге ирония узнается благодаря контексту, ближайшему или широкому. Лисица восхищается красотой... Вороны, называет умным... Осла; смысл слов Муравья (они же - "мораль" басни) ясен из предшествующего им рассказа. 
 
Но если в басне уловить иронию нетрудно, то в других, свободных от прямой дидактики, жанрах авторская словесная ирония может быть не сразу понята публикой, как это случилось с "Героем нашего времени". В своем объяснении с читателями - Предисловии ко второму книжному изданию романа (1841) - Лермонтов сетовал на "несчастную доверчивость некоторых читателей и даже журналов к буквальному значению слов", на то, что публика "не угадывает шутки, не чувствует иронии" - в частности в самом названии романа. Изображая своего "странного" героя, Лермонтов, как и Пушкин в "Евгении Онегине", уклонился от нравоучения, от прямого выражения авторской позиции. Многозначности романа способствовала, наряду с другими его особенностями (система рассказчиков, сюжетная инверсия), ироническая стилистика. В Предисловии к "Журналу Печорина" автор как бы приглашает читателей к спору о герое: "Может быть, некоторые читатели захотят узнать мое мнение о характере Печорина? - Мой ответ - заглавие этой книги. - "Да это злая ирония!" - скажут они. - Не знаю". 
 
Термин "ирония" имеет и другое, более широкое значение: это эстетическая категория, переходная форма от юмора к сатире, "насмешка, основанная на чувстве превосходства говорящего над тем, к кому он обращается, в ней в известной мере скрыт обидный оттенок" 4 . Как эстетическую категорию иронию следует отличать от одноименного стилистического приема: ведь презрительно- насмешливое отношение к предмету можно выразить, не прибегая к антифразису. Например, в четверостишии из стихотворения В. В. Князева "С натуры" (напечатанного в журнале "Сатирикон" в 1909 г.) общий смысл явно ироничен: 
 
После сытного обеда 
 
В кабинете у Володи 
 
Долго шла у нас беседа 
 
О страдающем народе 5 . 
 
Источник комизма - контраст между "сытным обедом" и темой долгой "беседы", но все слова имеют прямое, буквальное значение. Вообще способов выражения насмешки великое множество. Часто, например, средством "снижения" предмета выступают сравнения и метафоры, сближающие, казалось бы, несовместимые понятия: "Маленькая княгиня, как старая полковая лошадь, услыхав звук трубы, бессознательно и забывая свое положение, готовилась к привычному галопу кокетства..." ("Война и мир" Л. Н. Толстого. T.I. Ч. 3. Гл. IV). 
 
 
Ирония как вид иносказания - один из многих приемов выражения насмешки, презрения, гнева. Он широко используется в ораторском искусстве, призванном возбудить соответствующие страсти в слушателях. В трагедии У. Шекспира "Юлий Цезарь" Марк Антоний сразу после убийства Цезаря заговорщиками, среди которых был Брут, произносит речь о покойном. Ее истинная цель - возбудить толпу против Брута, но говорить прямо Антоний не может: ведь власть в руках заговорщиков, он даже выступает с их разрешения. И оратор не устает восхвалять Брута: 
 
"... Честный Брут